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From the early fourteenth century the battlefield dominance of the mounted knight was increasingly challenged by the rising power of the foot soldier. The Flemish spearmen at Courtrai in 1302, and the Scots at Bannockburn in 1314, showed that steady foot could defeat mounted knights. However, it was the English use of massed longbowmen combined with dismounted men-at-arms that would come to dominate western European battlefields for the rest of the 14th century and well into the 15th. During the Hundred Years War, from 1337 to 1453, the French knights suffered a string of catastrophic defeats at the hands of this combination. After Crécy in 1346, the French knights were largely forced to fight on foot, to minimise their vulnerability to the arrow storm. Eventually, by avoiding pitched battles and concentrating on capturing important cities and castles, the French won the war and expelled the English from nearly all of their continental territories. English longbowmen also ventured to Italy and Spain as mercenaries or allies, but warfare in these countries continued to develop rather differently from the rest of Western Europe. Italy in this period was still a collection of small independent states. The communal militia infantry had declined in importance, and had been replaced by the Condottieri as the main strength of Italian armies. These were mercenary captains who were hired to provide a company of professional armoured cavalry, and sometimes infantry. In Spain the large Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castile and Portugal shared the Iberian peninsula with the Muslim kingdom of Granada. In addition to fighting each other and many civil wars, there was occasional conflict with the Islamic North African powers. Spanish men-at-arms still usually fought mounted, while lig